Diet and nutrition

Foods

• Nuts · Nuts are energy-dense seeds such as almonds, walnuts and peanuts; each extra 28 g a day is linked to 22% lower all-cause mortality across 15 studies.
• Leafy greens · Leafy greens are vegetables eaten mainly for their leaves, such as spinach, kale and lettuce; higher intake is linked to 22% lower all-cause mortality.
• Coffee · Coffee is a brewed drink made from roasted coffee beans; strong evidence links moderate intake with lower all-cause mortality.
• Olive oil · Olive oil is the fat pressed from olives; strong evidence links higher intake with lower all-cause and cardiovascular mortality.
• Chili peppers · Chili peppers are hot peppers whose heat comes from capsaicin; across 4 cohorts, eating them regularly was linked to 12% lower all-cause mortality.
• Cruciferous vegetables · Cruciferous vegetables are the cabbage family, including broccoli, cabbage and kale; higher intake is linked to 10% lower all-cause mortality.
• Tea · Tea is a drink brewed from the leaves of the tea plant; moderate evidence links higher intake with lower all-cause mortality.
• Fish · Fish is the flesh of finned water animals eaten as food; higher intake, especially of fatty fish, is linked to somewhat lower death rates.
• Soy foods · Soy foods are made from soybeans, such as tofu, soy milk and edamame; the highest intake was linked to 8% lower all-cause mortality than the lowest.
• Berries · Berries are small, soft fruits such as strawberries, blueberries and cranberries; one US study linked eating any berries with 21% lower all-cause mortality.
• Yogurt · Yogurt is milk fermented by bacteria; the highest intakes are linked to modestly lower death rates, with no extra benefit above about half a serving a day.
• Fruit · Fruit is the sweet, seed-bearing part of flowering plants; each extra daily serving of fruit is linked to 6% lower all-cause mortality.
• Whole grains · Whole grains keep the bran, germ and endosperm of the cereal kernel; strong evidence links higher intake with lower all-cause mortality.
• Legumes · Legumes are beans, lentils, chickpeas and peas; across 27 studies the highest intake was linked to 6% lower all-cause mortality than the lowest.
• Mushrooms · Mushrooms are the edible fruiting bodies of fungi; pooled cohorts of 601,893 people linked eating them with 6% lower all-cause mortality.
• Cheese · Cheese is a food made by curdling and ageing milk; the highest intakes are linked to slightly lower death rates in an umbrella review.
• Vegetables · Vegetables are the edible leaves, stems, roots and other parts of plants; each extra daily serving is linked to 4% lower all-cause mortality.
• Poultry · Poultry is the meat of farmed birds such as chicken and turkey; the highest intakes are linked to slightly lower death rates, with low-certainty evidence.
• Chocolate · Chocolate is a food made from roasted cacao beans, usually with sugar; limited evidence links moderate intake with slightly lower mortality.
• Butter · Butter is a dairy fat made by churning cream; evidence on mortality is mixed, with a small or neutral link in pooled studies.
• Dairy overall · Dairy covers milk and foods made from it, such as cheese, yogurt and butter; reviews find no clear overall link between total dairy and death from any cause.
• Eggs · Eggs are the shelled eggs of hens and other birds; the highest intakes show no clear link with death from any cause, with small risks reported at high amounts.
• Fried foods · Fried foods are foods cooked in hot oil or fat; they show no clear link with death from any cause in pooled data but are linked to heart disease.
• Fruit juice · Fruit juice is the liquid pressed from fruit; evidence on mortality is mixed, and no pooled all-cause mortality figure was found.
• Milk · Milk is the liquid produced by cows and other mammals for drinking; extra milk shows no clear link with death from any cause, though whole milk may differ.
• Potatoes · Potatoes are starchy tubers eaten boiled, baked, mashed or fried; pooled studies show no clear link between potatoes and all-cause mortality.
• Sweets and added sugar · Sweets and added sugar include candy, desserts and sugar added to foods; evidence on mortality is mixed, and no pooled figure was found for added sugar.
• White rice · White rice is rice milled to remove the bran and germ; evidence on mortality is mixed, with no clear link in pooled studies.
• Avocado · Avocado is a creamy fruit rich in unsaturated fat; no all-cause mortality figure was found, but two US cohorts linked it with lower cardiovascular disease.
• Citrus fruit · Citrus fruit includes oranges, lemons, limes and grapefruit; a large review linked citrus with lower all-cause mortality, but no pooled figure was found.
• Diet drinks · Diet drinks are beverages sweetened with low- or no-calorie sweeteners; evidence on mortality is mixed and likely distorted by who chooses them.
• Sugary drinks · Sugary drinks are soft drinks and other beverages sweetened with added sugar; moderate evidence links each extra daily serving with higher all-cause mortality.
• Refined grains · Refined grains are milled to remove the bran and germ; evidence on mortality is mixed, with one large multi-country study finding higher risk at very high intake.
• Salt added at the table · Salt added at the table is salt sprinkled on food after cooking; in one large UK study, always adding it was linked to higher risk of premature death.
• Red meat · Red meat is the meat of mammals such as cattle, pigs and sheep; higher intake is linked to modestly higher death rates, with low-certainty evidence.
• Ultra-processed foods · Ultra-processed foods are industrial products made mostly from refined ingredients and additives; greater intake is linked to higher death rates.
• Processed meat · Processed meat is meat preserved by curing, salting or smoking, such as bacon, ham and sausages; higher intake is consistently linked to higher death rates.