Cardiovascular health

• Sleep duration and mortality · How habitual sleep length, sleep regularity and sleep disorders relate to the risk of death in long-term population studies.
• Naps · A nap is a short sleep taken during the daytime; short naps improve alertness, while regular naps of an hour or more are linked to a higher risk of death.
• Exercise and longevity · Evidence linking physical activity, aerobic fitness and muscle strength to lifespan, with the main studies, types of exercise and study limitations.
• VO2 max · VO2 max is the highest rate at which the body can take in and use oxygen during all-out exercise, and one of the strongest known predictors of early death.
• High-intensity interval training · High-intensity interval training alternates short bouts of vigorous exercise with recovery periods and raises aerobic fitness quickly.
• Resistance training · Resistance training is exercise in which muscles work against a load, such as weights, elastic bands or body weight, to build strength and muscle.
• Sedentary time · Sedentary time is waking time spent sitting, reclining or lying with very low energy use; large amounts are linked to higher death rates in low-activity adults.
• Yoga and tai chi · Yoga and tai chi are low-impact mind-body exercises; tai chi has a death-rate study and fall-prevention trials, yoga has blood pressure and back pain trials.
• Dietary patterns · Dietary patterns are the overall combinations of foods people habitually eat, studied for their links to heart disease, cancer and lifespan.
• Dietary fiber · Dietary fiber is the part of plant foods that human digestive enzymes cannot break down; higher intakes are linked to lower heart disease and death rates.
• Meal timing · Meal timing is the clock time and daily regularity of eating; very late and irregular meals are linked to higher cardiovascular and mortality risk.
• Coffee, tea and energy drinks · Coffee, tea and energy drinks are the main sources of caffeine; coffee and tea are linked to lower death rates, energy drinks to short-term heart effects.
• Alcohol · Alcohol (ethanol) is a widely used sedative drug whose health risks rise with the amount drunk, including cancer, heart disease, liver disease and injury.
• Smoking · Tobacco smoking shortens life by about ten years on average, and stopping at any age recovers much of that loss.
• Nuts · Nuts are energy-dense seeds such as almonds, walnuts and peanuts; each extra 28 g a day is linked to 22% lower all-cause mortality across 15 studies.
• Leafy greens · Leafy greens are vegetables eaten mainly for their leaves, such as spinach, kale and lettuce; higher intake is linked to 22% lower all-cause mortality.
• Coffee · Coffee is a brewed drink made from roasted coffee beans; strong evidence links moderate intake with lower all-cause mortality.
• Olive oil · Olive oil is the fat pressed from olives; strong evidence links higher intake with lower all-cause and cardiovascular mortality.
• Chili peppers · Chili peppers are hot peppers whose heat comes from capsaicin; across 4 cohorts, eating them regularly was linked to 12% lower all-cause mortality.
• Tea · Tea is a drink brewed from the leaves of the tea plant; moderate evidence links higher intake with lower all-cause mortality.
• Fish · Fish is the flesh of finned water animals eaten as food; higher intake, especially of fatty fish, is linked to somewhat lower death rates.
• Soy foods · Soy foods are made from soybeans, such as tofu, soy milk and edamame; the highest intake was linked to 8% lower all-cause mortality than the lowest.
• Berries · Berries are small, soft fruits such as strawberries, blueberries and cranberries; one US study linked eating any berries with 21% lower all-cause mortality.
• Yogurt · Yogurt is milk fermented by bacteria; the highest intakes are linked to modestly lower death rates, with no extra benefit above about half a serving a day.
• Fruit · Fruit is the sweet, seed-bearing part of flowering plants; each extra daily serving of fruit is linked to 6% lower all-cause mortality.
• Whole grains · Whole grains keep the bran, germ and endosperm of the cereal kernel; strong evidence links higher intake with lower all-cause mortality.
• Legumes · Legumes are beans, lentils, chickpeas and peas; across 27 studies the highest intake was linked to 6% lower all-cause mortality than the lowest.
• Cheese · Cheese is a food made by curdling and ageing milk; the highest intakes are linked to slightly lower death rates in an umbrella review.
• Vegetables · Vegetables are the edible leaves, stems, roots and other parts of plants; each extra daily serving is linked to 4% lower all-cause mortality.
• Poultry · Poultry is the meat of farmed birds such as chicken and turkey; the highest intakes are linked to slightly lower death rates, with low-certainty evidence.
• Chocolate · Chocolate is a food made from roasted cacao beans, usually with sugar; limited evidence links moderate intake with slightly lower mortality.
• Butter · Butter is a dairy fat made by churning cream; evidence on mortality is mixed, with a small or neutral link in pooled studies.
• Dairy overall · Dairy covers milk and foods made from it, such as cheese, yogurt and butter; reviews find no clear overall link between total dairy and death from any cause.
• Eggs · Eggs are the shelled eggs of hens and other birds; the highest intakes show no clear link with death from any cause, with small risks reported at high amounts.
• Fried foods · Fried foods are foods cooked in hot oil or fat; they show no clear link with death from any cause in pooled data but are linked to heart disease.
• Milk · Milk is the liquid produced by cows and other mammals for drinking; extra milk shows no clear link with death from any cause, though whole milk may differ.
• Avocado · Avocado is a creamy fruit rich in unsaturated fat; no all-cause mortality figure was found, but two US cohorts linked it with lower cardiovascular disease.
• Citrus fruit · Citrus fruit includes oranges, lemons, limes and grapefruit; a large review linked citrus with lower all-cause mortality, but no pooled figure was found.
• Sugary drinks · Sugary drinks are soft drinks and other beverages sweetened with added sugar; moderate evidence links each extra daily serving with higher all-cause mortality.
• Refined grains · Refined grains are milled to remove the bran and germ; evidence on mortality is mixed, with one large multi-country study finding higher risk at very high intake.
• Salt added at the table · Salt added at the table is salt sprinkled on food after cooking; in one large UK study, always adding it was linked to higher risk of premature death.
• Red meat · Red meat is the meat of mammals such as cattle, pigs and sheep; higher intake is linked to modestly higher death rates, with low-certainty evidence.
• Ultra-processed foods · Ultra-processed foods are industrial products made mostly from refined ingredients and additives; greater intake is linked to higher death rates.
• Processed meat · Processed meat is meat preserved by curing, salting or smoking, such as bacon, ham and sausages; higher intake is consistently linked to higher death rates.
• Cardiovascular disease · Cardiovascular disease is the group of disorders of the heart and blood vessels, mainly heart attack and stroke, and the leading cause of death worldwide.
• Blood pressure · Blood pressure is the force of circulating blood on artery walls; persistently high blood pressure raises the risk of stroke, heart disease and early death.
• Cholesterol · Cholesterol is a fatty substance carried in the blood; raised LDL cholesterol builds plaque in the arteries and raises the risk of heart attack and stroke.
• Metabolic health and type 2 diabetes · Metabolic health is how well the body controls blood sugar, fat and blood pressure; type 2 diabetes is the chronic disease of persistently high blood sugar.
• Body weight · Body weight relative to height, usually measured as body mass index, has a J-shaped link with risk of death, lowest at a BMI of about 20 to 25.
• Heat exposure · Heat exposure, or passive heat therapy, is whole-body heating by sauna, hot tub or infrared cabin, studied mainly for links with heart health.
• Dementia risk factors · Dementia risk rises with age and genes, and about 45% of cases worldwide are attributed to 14 factors across life that could potentially be changed.
• Mental health conditions and lifespan · Mental disorders are linked to about twice the usual death rate, mostly from physical disease, with the largest losses in substance use and schizophrenia.
• Stress and anxiety · Long-term stress and distress are associated with higher death rates and heart disease, and positive well-being and purpose with lower death rates.
• Social connection · Strong relationships are linked to 50% higher odds of survival, and isolation and loneliness to higher risk of heart disease, stroke and dementia.
• Pet ownership · Dog ownership is linked to lower risk of death in large studies of owners; evidence for cats, fish, birds and other pets is limited or shows no clear link.
• Oral health · Oral health is the condition of the teeth and gums; gum disease and tooth loss are linked with heart disease, dementia and earlier death.
• Hair loss · Hair loss is most often inherited pattern baldness, which does not shorten life but is associated with heart disease and metabolic syndrome.
• Inflammation and aging · Chronic low-grade inflammation rises with age and is linked to heart disease, frailty and death; drug trials test whether lowering it prevents disease.
• Family history and genetics · Family history records which diseases occurred in close blood relatives and at what age; it predicts several diseases far better than it predicts lifespan.

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