Metabolic health

• Zone 2 training · Zone 2 training is steady aerobic exercise at a moderate intensity just below the point where blood lactate begins to rise.
• Muscle mass · Muscle mass is the amount of skeletal muscle in the body; it grows with resistance training and adequate protein and declines with age.
• Sedentary time · Sedentary time is waking time spent sitting, reclining or lying with very low energy use; large amounts are linked to higher death rates in low-activity adults.
• Dietary patterns · Dietary patterns are the overall combinations of foods people habitually eat, studied for their links to heart disease, cancer and lifespan.
• Dietary fiber · Dietary fiber is the part of plant foods that human digestive enzymes cannot break down; higher intakes are linked to lower heart disease and death rates.
• Meal timing · Meal timing is the clock time and daily regularity of eating; very late and irregular meals are linked to higher cardiovascular and mortality risk.
• Hydration · Hydration is the body's water balance; chronic low fluid intake is linked to chronic disease, and heavy drinking in endurance events can cause hyponatremia.
• Nuts · Nuts are energy-dense seeds such as almonds, walnuts and peanuts; each extra 28 g a day is linked to 22% lower all-cause mortality across 15 studies.
• Whole grains · Whole grains keep the bran, germ and endosperm of the cereal kernel; strong evidence links higher intake with lower all-cause mortality.
• Legumes · Legumes are beans, lentils, chickpeas and peas; across 27 studies the highest intake was linked to 6% lower all-cause mortality than the lowest.
• Fruit juice · Fruit juice is the liquid pressed from fruit; evidence on mortality is mixed, and no pooled all-cause mortality figure was found.
• Potatoes · Potatoes are starchy tubers eaten boiled, baked, mashed or fried; pooled studies show no clear link between potatoes and all-cause mortality.
• Sweets and added sugar · Sweets and added sugar include candy, desserts and sugar added to foods; evidence on mortality is mixed, and no pooled figure was found for added sugar.
• White rice · White rice is rice milled to remove the bran and germ; evidence on mortality is mixed, with no clear link in pooled studies.
• Diet drinks · Diet drinks are beverages sweetened with low- or no-calorie sweeteners; evidence on mortality is mixed and likely distorted by who chooses them.
• Sugary drinks · Sugary drinks are soft drinks and other beverages sweetened with added sugar; moderate evidence links each extra daily serving with higher all-cause mortality.
• Refined grains · Refined grains are milled to remove the bran and germ; evidence on mortality is mixed, with one large multi-country study finding higher risk at very high intake.
• Ultra-processed foods · Ultra-processed foods are industrial products made mostly from refined ingredients and additives; greater intake is linked to higher death rates.
• Cardiovascular disease · Cardiovascular disease is the group of disorders of the heart and blood vessels, mainly heart attack and stroke, and the leading cause of death worldwide.
• Blood pressure · Blood pressure is the force of circulating blood on artery walls; persistently high blood pressure raises the risk of stroke, heart disease and early death.
• Cholesterol · Cholesterol is a fatty substance carried in the blood; raised LDL cholesterol builds plaque in the arteries and raises the risk of heart attack and stroke.
• Metabolic health and type 2 diabetes · Metabolic health is how well the body controls blood sugar, fat and blood pressure; type 2 diabetes is the chronic disease of persistently high blood sugar.
• Body weight · Body weight relative to height, usually measured as body mass index, has a J-shaped link with risk of death, lowest at a BMI of about 20 to 25.
• Hair loss · Hair loss is most often inherited pattern baldness, which does not shorten life but is associated with heart disease and metabolic syndrome.
• Family history and genetics · Family history records which diseases occurred in close blood relatives and at what age; it predicts several diseases far better than it predicts lifespan.

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